A recent question prompted this post. Yes, poetic devices are employed liberally in the design of almost all poetry, including Free Verse/Open Form.
In poetry, literary devices are called poetic devices. At its most basic, it is a deliberate use of words, phrases, and sounds to convey meaning—all within moderation.
All tropes work to evoke a mood, emotion, or physical sensation. Tropes, derived from the Greek word tropos, which means, turn, direction, way, are figures of speech that move the meaning of the text from literal to figurative, ie a literary trope is the use of figurative language, via word, phrase or an image, for artistic effect such as using a figure of speech. Therefore, a well-designed trope can significantly contribute to making a piece of writing memorable and engaging because it brings a story or a poem to life through descriptive detail. Furthermore, since some types of tropes depend upon an element of subtle repetition, for eg, a common motif, it can provide a rhythmic undercurrent to a poem. As a result, an observant reader notices patterns within a text and assigns meaning for themselves and anticipates the commonality of the words to follow. Common types of tropes include euphemism, irony, allegory, simile and metaphor.*
Motifs, themes, and symbols usually work together to create the atmosphere of a piece of literature.
Allegory is a literary technique in which an abstract idea is given the form of characters, actions, or events.
Alliteration is the repeating (at least 3 in a row) of consonant sounds right next to each other, which creates a memorable or melodic effect. However, vowels in stressed syllables can also alliterate, eg into/instead.†
An allusion is an indirect reference to something. It is when a subject is not directly addressed, but obliquely referred to.
An analogy is saying something is like something else to make some sort of an explanatory point. You can use metaphor and simile when creating an analogy.
Anthropomorphism refers to the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities, for example, one’s pets. This is considered an innate tendency of human psychology. An example of this in literature can be found in Aesop’s Fables.
Antithesis is a literary technique that places opposite things or ideas next to one another in order to draw out their contrast.
Apostrophe as a figure of speech is when a character addresses someone or something that isn’t present or cannot respond. The character might speak to someone deceased, an inanimate object, or a concept.
A burlesque is a literary, dramatic or musical work intended to invoke humour by caricaturing the manner or spirit of serious works, or by taking a dig at them.
Catachresis: 1. The misapplication of a word or phrase, as the use of blatant to mean ‘flagant’. 2. the use of a strained figure of speech, such as a mixed metaphor.
Creative/Poetic licence is an exaggeration or alteration of objective facts or reality for the purpose of enhancing meaning in a fictional context.
Both chiasmus and antimetabole can be used to reinforce antithesis. In chiasmus, the clauses display inverted parallelism (see below). Chiasmus (plural: chiasmi) balances words or phrases with similar, though not identical meanings; a reversal of grammatical structure in successive phrases or clauses—but NOT the repetition of words, for example: She has all my love; my heart belongs to her. Antimetabole also involves a reversal of grammatical structure in successive phrases or clauses, but unlike chiasmus, presents a repetition of words in an ABBA configuration, for example: One must eat to live, and not live to eat. ~Molière.
A double entendre is a figure of speech or a particular way of wording that is devised to have a double meaning, of which one is typically obvious, whereas the other often conveys a message that would be too socially awkward, sexually suggestive, or offensive to state directly.
Enjambment is often employed in lengthy poems where one line of thought runs over into the next line in the poem.
A euphemism is a way to say something in an understated manner, often to avoid a difficult topic, or the description of a disagreeable thing by an agreeable name. For example: You’re well fed. (Meaning: You’re fat.)
Foreshadowing is a valuable literary device for any poet to employ. The poet’s choice of words, often synonyms or related in some or other aspect, for example, a common motif, sets the mood and subconsciously influences the reader.
Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration that adds emphasis, urgency, or excitement to a statement, for example, ‘Your bag weighs a ton!’
An idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to the common use of that expression that is separate from the literal or definition of the words of which it is made. For example, a big girl’s blouse is a British idiom, meaning someone is weak—see the poem, The Coward. The idiom tongue-in-cheek refers to a humorous or sarcastic statement expressed in a mock serious manner. Idiom also refers to a dialect or jargon of a group of people, either in a certain region or a group with common interests, eg in science, music, art, or business. An expression is used to refer to a particular way of phrasing an idea and can include idiom, for example, ‘24/7’ (adverb): meaning all the time.
Imagery: The 6 types of imagery are auditory, gustatory, kinetic, olfactory, tactile & visual. In poetry, imagery is a vivid and vibrant form of description that appeals to readers’ senses and imagination, and is often left open to interpretation.
Inversion: A trope inversion occurs when an existing trope is used in a professional or fanwork, but flipped on its head, defying the audience’s expectations. Example: ‘Aliens Made Them Refrain From Doing It’ (iso Aliens made them do it).
Irony is a situation that subverts a reader’s expectations. But when it is used to attack someone it is in fact sarcasm. As with satire, it is time sensitive, ie referring to current affairs.
Juxtaposition is often used to create a contrast in a poem. An example of this is where the poet contrasts the observed with an emotional response. To juxtapose the elements of the past and present lends interest to your poem, especially if it is a situation your readers can relate to.
Litotes use a double negative to create a positive. Eg: ‘You’re not wrong.’
A useful literary device, a MacGuffin is an object, device, or event that is necessary to the plot and the motivation of the characters, but insignificant, unimportant, or irrelevant in itself—it’s the exact opposite of foreshadowing. It is sometimes necessary for the plot and characters of a story/poem, for example, by way of the title, but it serves no greater purpose for the storyline itself.
A metaphor is often poetically saying something is something else, ie figurative language. There are two parts to a metaphor: the tenor and the vehicle. The tenor is the thing being compared and the vehicle what you are comparing it to. It may be inferred by a phrase, for example, ‘on my golden baked skin’ (a reference to sunbathing). The repeated use of the same metaphor in multiple places throughout a text does not make it an example of an extended metaphor; it is viewed as recurring metaphors. An extended metaphor must contain different tenors and vehicles that together fit into the metaphor of the overarching tenor and vehicle, for example, the motif of Life & Death. The term Metaphorical Realism appropriately suggests both the undermining of literal realism and the elevation of metaphor. I have touched on this with my sonnets, When the New Year Looms, I Dance with Shadows, and The First Dandelions of Spring, as well as my Suzette Prime poems, Passion, and Verismo.
Metonymy is a literary device in which a word or object stands in for a closely related word or object. It gives a writer more variability with descriptions. For example, the term Fourth Estate or fourth power refers to the press and news media in its capacity to shape laws by influencing political opinion.
A mondegreen is the mishearing or misinterpretation of a phrase as a result of near-homophony, in a way that gives it a new meaning. It most commonly is applied to a line in a poem or a lyric in a song. The unintentionally incorrect use of similar-sounding words or phrases in speaking is a malapropism resulting in a nonsensical, often humorous utterance.
Just like with symbols, motifs are similar but not the same as themes. They are both parts of a story but a motif is always something tangible. Motifs are usually more abstract—it is an action, image, idea, or sensory perception that repeats in a work of literature; it has to have symbolic or thematic importance. It is a repeating feature that furthers the meaning of the work of literature through its repetition. It is used to help explain the central idea of the poem.
Onomatopoeia is a word that sounds like what it means.
An oxymoron is a phrase that uses two contradictory words to create a new meaning, for example: Fighting for peace.
A paradox is a statement that appears to contradict itself but contains some truth, theme, or humour.
Parallelism is a literary device in itself, but it is also a category under which other figures of speech fall, such as anaphora, antithesis, asyndeton, epistrophe, etc. Therefore, these other literary devices and figure of speech are specific types of parallelism. In rhetoric, parallelism means giving two or more parts of the sentences a similar form so as to give the whole a definite pattern, eg Give a man a fish … The only requirement is the repetition of grammatical elements and/or structure in a written work—apart from strictly word or phrase repetition. Example: ‘The inherent vice of capitalism is the unequal share of blessings; the inherent virtue of socialism is the equal sharing of miseries.’ ~Winston Churchill
Paraprosdokian is a figure of speech in which the latter part of a sentence, phrase, or longer piece is surprising or unexpected in a way that causes the reader or listener to reframe or reinterpret the first part.
Periphrasis: 1. The use of circumlocution; 2. A circumlocution. (For example, see my poem, Circumlocution, here on PS).
The difference between parody and lampoon (both nouns) is that parody is work or performance that imitates another work or performance with ridicule or irony, while lampoon is a written attack ridiculing a person, group, or institution.
Persona Literary Term refers to the narrator or speaker of the poem; not to be confused with the author.
To personify the subject (usually a person), whether in prose or poetry, is an honour bestowed on the recipient, for example, He personifies Hope.
Personification is a type of metaphor, for example, The naked tree branch reaches out to its drowning shadow in the millpond.
Pleonasm is the use of more words than necessary to convey meaning.
A Prosopopoeia is a form of personification. It is a figure of speech in which an imaginary, absent, or deceased person is represented as speaking or acting.
Pun is a form of wordplay that purposely substitutes words that sound similar but have different meanings. One of the most famous puns in literature is found in Romeo and Juliet. After Mercutio was fatally stabbed he said with his dying breath: ‘ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man’.
Repetition of certain words or phrases is a poetic device used to great effect. Refrain is a type of repetition, but it is somewhat different from repetition. Refrain is repetition of usually a line, a phrase, two or three lines, or even words in a poem. Repetition, on the other hand, involves repetition of words, phrases, syllables, or even sounds in a full piece. Another difference is that a refrain in a poem may appear at the end of a stanza; however, this recurrence of words and phrases in repetition may occur in any line of the stanza.†
A rhetorical question is a question asked to emphasise a point rather than in expectation of an answer. Although it is more often present as a literary device or in rhetoric, it can also be found in poetry—it is a prerequisite of the poetry form Quinzaine.
Satire is a technique employed by writers to expose and criticise foolishness and corruption of an individual or a society by using humour, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule. It is often found in newspapers, quoting pieces verbatim.
A simile is saying something is like something else, using words such as ‘like’, ‘as’, etc.
A skit is a short comedy sketch or piece of humorous writing, especially a parody.
A spoonerism is an error in speech or deliberate play on words in which corresponding consonants, vowels, or morphemes are switched between two words in a phrase; for example saying ‘The Lord is a shoving leopard’, instead of ‘The Lord is a loving shepherd’.
In poems that use symbolism, poets don't clearly state what a symbol represents, whereas in metaphor they typically do. A symbol must be something tangible or visible, while the idea it symbolises must be something abstract or universal, containing symbolism that through its repetition furthers the core idea of the poem. For example: Although the raven is often associated with loss and ill omen, its symbolism is complex; it also represents prophecy and insight. Ravens in stories often act as psychopomps, connecting the material world with the world of spirits. In many instances, symbolism has its roots in mythology.
Synecdoche is similar to a metaphor, but it uses related concepts to help illustrate meaning. For example, introducing children as ‘mouths to feed’ is part-metaphor and part synecdoche.
A theme can be anything from religious fervour to revolution.
Zeugma: 1. Syllepsis; 2. A construction in which one word or phrase is understood to fill a parallel syntax role in two or more clauses or phrases, as with the verb was in: She was upstairs and her husband downstairs. Syllepis (also known as zeugma) is a figure of speech in which a single word is used to modify two or more words in a sentence, but the meaning of that word is different in relation to each of the other words. It is grammatically correct but creates its effect by exploiting multiple shades of meaning in a single word or phrase. Example: He took his hat and his leave.
NB Poetry Soup list some of these poetic devices as 'Poetry Form', which they are NOT.
*List of tropes: Anaphora, antanaclasis, apostrophe, catachresis, euphemism, hyperbole, inversion, irony, litotes, metaphor, metonymy, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, periphrasis, personification, simile, synecdoche, zeugma and syllepsis.
†See my earlier blog for more details: Etymology - the meaning of a name - NEW CONTEST/CHALLENGE - Suzette Richards's Blog (poetrysoup.com)